PRESENTATION: Immigration and Hate Crime
Anti-Islamic Political Sentiment Cartoon (Image One)
Part One: Islamophobia and the Stereotype of Terrorism
The problem of Islamophobia has played part in America’s history for centuries, dating back to as early as the 600s CE when the rivalry between Christianity and Islam first arose. Cambridge Dictionary defines Islamophobia as the “the unreasonable dislike or fear of, and prejudice against, Muslims or Islam. [i] With the distrust and dislike showed towards Muslim-Americans, tensions within American society is apparent and has led to extreme Islamophobia. However, Islamophobia is not just directed towards Muslims as those with Islam characteristics also find themselves victims of the abuse.[ii]. The problem of Islamophobia has created problems in modern-day society, being extremely prominent in America’s society.
Although beginning over two thousand years ago, the problem of Islamophobia is still current today. After the 9/11 attacks, in 2001, on the Twin Towers in Manhattan,
Demonstrators shouting during a ‘Freedom of Speech’ rally (Image Two)
NYC, the rates of Islamophobia only increased as the attacks were led by Osama Bin Laden, a Muslim terrorist and member of the Taliban and Al Qaeda regimes. With these attacks came the growth of the stereotypical belief that all followers of Islam were involved in terrorism. Muslims became associated with subjects such as conflict, war, crises and terrorism, and were referred to as extremists, militants, terrorists and fundamentalists.[iii] With the increase in stereotyping came the increase in Islamophobic attacks carried out by non-Muslims, as well as the increase of media attention. A study carried out by CAIR in 2016 told us that there had been an increase of 57% in Islamophobic incidents in 2015, as well as a 44% increase in Islamophobic hate crimes within the same period.[iv] These statistics represent the high increase of Islamophobia in America. America’s problem of Islamophobia led to the Iraq War in 2003 in retaliation to the 9/11 attacks that occurred two years prior. Islamophobic rates in America are still at an all-time high and continue to increase on the daily.
Further Resources:
https://www.voanews.com/usa/attacks-against-us-muslims-growing-frequency-violence
https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-anti-muslim-incidents-05092017-story.html
Part Two: Impact of 9/11 on Hate Crimes Against Arab-Americans in America
Whilst hate crime has been consistently prevalent in America as far back as the emancipation of slavery, 9/11 can be viewed as a critical point in the deterioration of the relationship between Muslims and Americans. Looking at the levels of hate crime in the year prior to 9/11, 28 cases of anti-Islamic hate crime were reported to the FBI. In the following year, the data showed a dramatic 1600% increase in reports with 481 reported incidents.[v] In many of these cases, the victims were targeted because of their supposed link to Islam. An example is that of Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh-American man who was shot to death in Arizona following 9/11, due to him wearing a turban.[vi] A report presented by M.H Swahn suggests that in at least thirty of the recorded anti-Islamic hate crimes in the report, 9/11 was given as reasoning or motive for the attacks.[vii]
Anti-Islamic Annual Assault Cases (Image Three)
The media also played an equally large role in prompting Islamophobic ideas through newspaper reports following 9/11. Many of the reports likened the experience of terror to ongoing conflict outwith the US, with many involving Muslims being cited. There is a suggestion that the media promoted a sense of ‘otherism’, which allowed much stronger hateful sentiments to be expressed through the alienation of Muslims. Many of the contemporary headines seem to suggest a link between Muslims and topics such as hate, war, violence and terrorism. One example is that of the New York Times who suggested there were ‘echoes’ of the ongoing conflict with Muslims within 9/11.[viii]
Therefore it seems evident that there was a dramatic change in attitude towards Muslims following 9/11, creating a more hostile and paranoid atmosphere in America, which would link into the War on Terror which swiftly followed.
Further Resources:
Part Three: Impact of 9/11 on the War on Terror
War on Terror Images (Image Four)
The War on Terror was the launch of a military campaign in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Phase one of the war was the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq by the U.S. military to remove the power of the Taliban regime and dismantle the Al-Qaeda’s networks.[ix] Since the perpetrators of the September attacks acted upon the support of Osama bin Laden’s Al-Qaeda organisation, this caused the outbreak of the war. The relationship between Egypt and America and their disagreements on using military intervention against the Taliban regime also impacted on the widespread outlook of the Islamic faith in the U.S.[x]
As the events of 9/11 and the impact of the War on Terror heightened, public attitudes towards Muslims and Arab-Americans changed. Americans demonstrated resentment and anxiety about Islam’s comparability with the violent and uncivilized stereotypes portrayed in various media and political platforms. Although President Bush urged Americans to resist anti-Muslim sentiments, the widespread speculation and concern from Americans continued to grow towards the Arabs and Muslims due to their apparent links to the terrorist attacks.[xi] As a result, U.S. foreign policy changed, establishing the Department of Homeland Security which followed up on any reports of concerns or suspicious behaviour.
The U.S. government also enacted new legislation to increase security measures by introducing improved technology, particularly in airports, to check passengers and their luggage through observation cameras and scanners.[xii] These measures enhanced passenger safety and reduced the risks of further terrorist attacks. Furthermore, the 9/11 also resulted in the introduction of a U.S. visa policy and application restriction where all applications were thoroughly checked and any suspicions resulting in the application being immediately refused. These procedures were carried out on all nationalities but were seen to be particularly directed at Arabs due to the post-terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the outcomes from the War on Terror.[xiii]
Further Resources:
David Hastings Dunn – Bush, 11 September and the Conflicting Strategies of the ‘War on Terrorism’ – https://www.jstor.org/stable/30001932?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents
Part Four: How is Immigration and Hate Crime Still Relevant Today?
Protestor’s against Trump’s travel ban (Image Five)
After significant events in America, such as 9/11, America’s security has never been more rigorous. When Trump put an extensive ban on countries such as Syria, Yemen and many more, people around the world believed this ban was targeted at Muslims. Trump still claims today that the ban did not intend to target Muslims. However, many are not convinced. Many did not feel that this ban was appropriate; however, many agreed with Trump. The implementation of travel bans made American citizens feel tense. Nonetheless, many felt he would not have introduced theses bans if they were not needed. This shows why hate crime is on the rise.
Many authoritative figures in America have a theory that immigrants, both legal and illegal, cause America’s crime rate to rise. This issue has been researched
Countries Affected by Trump’s Travel Ban (Image Six)
and disproved many times. What was discovered during research was “that legal and undocumented immigrants were less likely to be incarcerated than native-born Americans”[xiv] This shows that people who were born in America were more likely to commit a crime than someone who immigrated. Many who immigrate to America want a better life, so committing a crime is usually the last thing on their mind.
Trump’s introduction of the new immigration policy has caused many to feel distressed. He wants immigrants coming to America to be able to speak English well. Discriminating against a person’s language is classed as a hate crime. Arabic is “one of the fastest-growing languages in the U.S.”[xv] However, people who speak Arabic are widely discriminated against. There have been many incidents where people who speak this language are asked to leave premises without no real reason or explanation. Unfortunately, crimes like these are not reported when they happen. People who speak Arabic should not feel like they have committed a crime they should be able to comfortably speak their own language.
Further Resources:
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/apr/19/why-speaking-arabic-america-feels-like-crime
[I]Anon, ‘Islamophobia’, (Cambridge Dictionary), <https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/islamophobia>
[ii]Lufti Sanar, ‘The Long History of Islam’, pp. 35 & 36
[iii]John Sides and Kimberly Gross, ‘Stereotypes of Muslims and Support for the War on Terror’, (The Journal of Politics, Vol. 75, No. 3 (29 May 2013)), p585
[iv]Lufti Sanar, ‘The Long History of Islam’, pp. 45 & 46
[v] Uniform Crime Reporting- FBI, 2000 Hate Crime Statistics, Hate Crime Statistics (FBI, 2001), p. Foreword <https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2001/hatecrime01.pdf>.
[vi]“Balbir Singh Sodhi | SAALT”, Saalt.Org, 2019 <https://saalt.org/tag/balbir-singh-sodhi/>
[vii]M H Swahn and others, Violent Attacks On Middle Easterners In The United States During The Month Following The September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, Injury Prevention (Injury Prevention, 2003), p. 188 <https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/injuryprev/9/2/187.full.pdf>.
[viii]Laurie Goodstein, “A DAY OF TERROR: THE TIES; In U.S., Echoes Of Rift Of Muslims And Jews”, The New York Times, 2001 <https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/12/us/a-day-of-terror-the-ties-in-us-echoes-of-rift-of-muslims-and-jews.html>.
[ix] Paul Jabber, ‘Impact of the War on Terror on certain aspects of US policy in the Middle East’, (2001) <https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/warterror_2001.pdf> [Accessed 15 March 2020].
[x] Mustapha K. Al-Sayyid, ‘U.S.-Egyptian Relations’, The Impact of 9/11 on the Middle East, 9 (2002) p.75.
[xi] Costas Panagopoulos, ‘Trends: Arab and Muslim Americans and Islam in the Aftermath of 9/11’. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 70 (2006) p.608.
[xii] Garrick Blalock and others, ‘The Impact of Post-9/11 Airport Security Measures on the Demand for Air Travel’, The Journal of Law & Economics, 50 (2007) p.731.
[xiii] Karin Glaser, ‘Impact of 9/11 Terrorist Attacks on US and International Tourism Development’, (2010) <https://www.modul.ac.at/uploads/files/Theses/Bachelor/BYSYUK_Impact_of_9_11_on_US_and_International_Tourism_Development.pdf> [Accessed 20 March 2020] p.19.
[xiv] Tanvi, Misra, “For The Last Time, Here’s The Real Link Between Immigration And Crime”, 2019 <https://www.citylab.com/equity/2019/02/crime-immigration-city-migrants-refugees-state-of-the-union/582001/> [Accessed 1 April 2020]
[xv] Hansi Lo, Wang For The First Time, U.S. Census To Collect Responses In Arabic Among 13 Languages, 2019 <https://www.npr.org/2019/03/31/629409884/for-the-first-time-u-s-census-to-collect-responses-in-arabic-among-13-languages> [Accessed 1 April 2020]
Bibliography
Books
Dissertations
Glaser Karin, ‘Impact of 9/11 Terrorist Attacks on US and International Tourism Development’, (2010) <https://www.modul.ac.at/uploads/files/Theses/Bachelor/BYSYUK_Impact_of_9_11_on_US_and_International_Tourism_Development.pdf>.
Journals
Al-Sayyid Mustapha K., ‘U.S.-Egyptian Relations’, The Impact of 9/11 on the Middle East, 9 (2002).
Blalock Garrick and others, ‘The Impact of Post-9/11 Airport Security Measures on the Demand for Air Travel’, The Journal of Law & Economics, 50 (2007).
Lufti Sanar, ‘The Long History of Islam as a Collective “Other” of the west and the Rise of Islamophobia in the U.S. after Trump’, (Insight Turkey, Vol. 19, No.3, Trump’s America Changes, Challenges, Expectations and Uncertainties (Summer 2017))
John Sides and Kimberly Gross, ‘Stereotypes of Muslims and Support for the War on Terror’, (The Journal of Politics, Vol. 75, No. 3 (29 May 2013)
Panagopoulos Costas, ‘Trends: Arab and Muslim Americans and Islam in the Aftermath of 9/11’. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 70 (2006).
Newspapers
Goodstein, Laurie, “A DAY OF TERROR: THE TIES; In U.S., Echoes Of Rift Of Muslims And Jews”, The New York Times, 2001 <https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/12/us/a-day-of-terror-the-ties-in-us-echoes-of-rift-of-muslims-and-jews.html>
Reports
Jabber Paul, ‘Impact of the War on Terror on certain aspects of US policy in the Middle East’, (2001) <https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/warterror_2001.pdf>.
Swahn, M H, R R Mahendra, L J Paulozzi, R L Winston, G A Shelley, and J Taliano and others, Violent Attacks On Middle Easterners In The United States During The Month Following The September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, Injury Prevention (Injury Prevention, 2003), p. 188 <https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/injuryprev/9/2/187.full.pdf>
Websites
Anon, ‘Islamophobia’, (Cambridge Dictionary), <https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/islamophobia>
“Balbir Singh Sodhi | SAALT”, Saalt.Org, 2019 <https://saalt.org/tag/balbir-singh-sodhi/>
Misra, Tanvi, “For The Last Time, Here’s The Real Link Between Immigration And Crime”, 2019 <https://www.citylab.com/equity/2019/02/crime-immigration-city-migrants-refugees-state-of-the-union/582001/>
Uniform Crime Reporting- FBI, 2000 Hate Crime Statistics, Hate Crime Statistics (FBI, 2001), p. Foreword <https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2001/hatecrime01.pdf>
Wang Hansi Lo, For The First Time, U.S. Census To Collect Responses In Arabic Among 13 Languages, 2019 <https://www.npr.org/2019/03/31/629409884/for-the-first-time-u-s-census-to-collect-responses-in-arabic-among-13-languages>
Images
Image One
Image Two
Image Three
Image Four-
Image Five
Image Six
Leave a Reply